Basic Computer

Are you new to using computers?

Do you wonder what people mean when they say the Cloud, Windows, Blackberry, Lion, etc.? Perhaps you would just like to know more about how computers work? When it comes to learning today’s technology, Computer Basics has all the basic concepts covered. What is a computer?A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and browse the Web. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, database management, presentations, games, and more. Mother

Booting: When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting.

Booting: When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting, System will check all the hardware’s and Software’s those are installed or Attached with the System and this will also load all the Files those are needed for running a system.

In the Booting Process all the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip will also be Loaded for Running the System. In the Booting Process the System will read all the information from the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip and the ROM chip will read all the instructions those are Stored into these Files. After the Booting of the System this will automatically display all the information on the System. The Instructions those are necessary to Start the System will be read at the Time of Booting.

There are three Types of Booting

1) Warm Booting: when the System Starts from the Starting or from initial State Means when we Starts our System this is called as warm Booting. In the Warm Booting the System will be Started from its beginning State means first of all, the user will press the Power Button , then this will read all the instructions from the ROM and the Operating System will b Automatically gets loaded into the System. WARM BOOT (a.k.a. WARM START)- Restarting the computer WITHOUT turning the power off.Shutdown option in the START menu of windows 9x/2K/XP/W7/W8.1 has a “Restart” option: this is a “warm boot”.

2) Cold Booting : The Cold Booting is that in which System Automatically Starts when we are Running the System, For Example due to Light Fluctuation the system will Automatically Restarts So that in this Chances Damaging of system are More. and the System will no be start from its initial State So May Some Files will b Damaged because they are not Properly Stored into the System.

3] Hot Booting : Restarting computer by pressing combination of CTR+ALT+Del. Keys

Benefits of computers.:-

Professional documents can be created
Calculations and arithmetical equations can be solved at a much accurate and faster rate.
Personal files can be kept together
Communications to other people in other countries can be made possible via E-mail
Store large amount of data
Online shopping
Online Education
Online Medical Treatment
Online Money Transaction
Sharing of data through Networking in Internet,Intranet & Extranet
Playing Games and see Movies
Online Chatting(Audio & Video)
Online Reservation
Software programming
Search through Internet

Basic Computer PPT :-

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BIOS:-

A set of computer instructions in firmware which control input and output operations.

Short for Basic Input/Output System, the BIOS, ROM BIOS, or System BIOS is a chip located on all motherboards that contain instructions and setup for how your system should boot and how it operates.

The four main functions of a PC BIOS :-

POST – Test the computer hardwareand make sure no errors exist before loading the operating system. Additional information on the POST can be found on ourPOST and Beep Codes page.

Bootstrap Loader – Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is located, the BIOS will pass control to it.

BIOS drivers – Low level drivers that give the computer basic operational control over your computer’s hardware.

BIOS or CMOS Setup – Configuration program that allows you to configure hardware settings including system settings such as computer passwords, time, and date.

MULTI TASKING

The ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a taskbeing a program. The terms multitasking and multiprocessing are often used interchangeably, although multiprocessing implies that more than one CPU is involved.In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one program to another so quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all of the programs at the same time.Multitasking, in an operating system, is allowing a user to perform more than one computertask (such as the operation of an application program) at a time. The operating system is able to keep track of where you are in these tasks and go from one to the other without losing information. Microsoft Windows 2000, IBM’s OS/390, and Linux are examples of operating systems that can do multitasking (almost all of today’s operating systems can). When you open your Web browser and then open Word at the same time, you are causing the operating system to do multitasking.Running two or more programs at the same time on the same single-processor (single CPU) computer. This seemingly simultaneous processing is deceptive because the CPU is actually attending to only one program at any given moment. The currently running program is said to be in the ‘foreground,’ all other programs are said to be running in the ‘background.’ Multitasking is of two main types: (1) in preemptive multitasking (such as in Linux, Unix, and Windows) the operating system (OS) controls the back-and-forth switching between the programs, and each program gets its turn in a predictable manner, (2) in non-preemptive multitasking (such as in Novell Netware) a program runs until it stops itself and its execution cannot be interrupted.

Process of having a computer perform multiple tasks simultaneously. Duringmultitasking, tasks such as listening to a CD or browsing the Internet can be performed in the background while using other programs in the foreground such as an e-mail client.

Advantages of multitasking

Data can be copied and moved between programs.
More productive, since dozens of different program can be running at once.
Programs that are updated can be seen immediately. For example, if a new e-mail is received you immediately know.

Disadvantages of multitasking

Requires more system resources.
If on alaptop or portable device takes more battery power.

GUI

In computing, a graphical user interface is a type of interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation

Abbreviated GUI (pronounced GOO-ee). A program interface that takes advantage of the computer’s graphics capabilities to make the program easier to use. Well-designed graphical user interfaces can free the user from learning complex command languages. On the other hand, many users find that they work more effectively with a command-driven interface, especially if they already know the command language.

Basic Components of a GUI

Graphical user interfaces, such as Microsoft Windows and the one used by the Apple Macintosh, feature the following basic components:

pointer: A symbol that appears on the display screen and that you move to select objects andcommands. Usually, the pointer appears as a small angled arrow. Text -processing applications, however, use an I-beam pointer that is shaped like a capital I.
pointing device: A device, such as a mouse or trackball, that enables you to select objects on the display screen.
icons: Small pictures that represent commands, files, or windows. By moving the pointer to the icon and pressing a mouse button, you can execute a command or convert the icon into a window. You can also move the icons around the display screen as if they were real objects on your desk.
desktop: The area on the display screen where icons are grouped is often referred to as the desktop because the icons are intended to represent real objects on a real desktop.
windows:You can divide the screen into different areas. In each window, you can run a different program or display a different file. You can move windows around the display screen, and change their shape and size at will.
menus: Most graphical user interfaces let you execute commands by selecting a choice from a menu.

In addition to their visual components, graphical user interfaces also make it easier to move data from one application to another. A true GUI includes standard formats for representing text and graphics. Because the formats are well-defined, different programs that run under a common GUI can share data. This makes it possible, for example, to copy a graph created by a spreadsheet program into a document created by a word processor.

File and folder management overview

Every Windows folder provides easy access to common file and folder management tasks. When you open any folder on your computer, a list of hyperlinked tasks is displayed next to the folder contents. You can select a file or folder, and then click a task to rename, copy, move, or delete it. You can also send a file in e-mail or publish it to the Web.In addition to the basic file and folder tasks provided in all Windows folders, there are several folders that provide links to specialized tasks.My Pictures and My Music folders provide task links that can help you manage your picture and music files.In the My Computer folder, you can view and select the drives on your computer, the devices with removable storage, and the files stored on your computer. You can use the task links in this folder to view information about your computer, change system settings using Control Panel, and perform other system management tasks.Use the Recycle Bin tasks to empty the Recycle Bin or restore deleted files and folders to their original locations. The Recycle Bin is displayed on your desktop.

As an administrator, to better control how files and folders are used, and makes it easier for users to work with files and folders. By using Group Policy, Folder Redirection, and Offline Files, you can centrally manage the use of files and folders. You can regulate the extent to which users can modify files and folders, back up user data automatically, and give users access to their files even when not connected to the network.

A file is a collection of numbers which have been written to your computer’s hard drive. These numbers can be converted into a picture, a sound, text, or a set of instructions for a program to perform certain actions. A clue to a file’s type is given by its Icon or by its file extension. Folders are containers for anything on a computer including files and other folders. A path lists the folders that have to be opened to get to the required file. Folders were called directories on older Microsoft systems.

New Features about Office 2013

1: The new spell checker

My favorite new feature in Office 2013 is without a doubt the spell checker. Office has had a good spell checker for quite some time, but the new version is far better. In addition to offering suggestions for misspelled words, the new spell checker also offers dictionary definitions for its suggestions. There is even a link you can click to have the computer to pronounce the word.

2: Outlook Weather

Okay, maybe this one is kind of gimmicky, but I love the fact that Outlook 2013 displays the weather forecast on the calendar. I travel a lot and it is nice to be able to see the weather for the city I am about to visit. It is also helpful when planning outdoor activities, such as a day on the lake.

3: Overhauled comments feature

I’m just going to say it. I have never liked Office’s comments feature. In past versions of Office, it was sometimes difficult to tell who was making a comment and replying to a comment was often problematic. I can’t begin to tell you how many times I have tried to respond to a comment only to have my response appear before the original comment. Thankfully, Microsoft has rebuilt the comment feature. It is now easy to tell who made which comment, and the comments are arranged in threads (similar to text messages), which makes it easy to stay organized.

4: Parallel installation capability

Previous versions of Microsoft Office don’t support parallel installations. If you want to install a new version, you have to get rid of the old version. However, you can now install Office 2013 alongside a previous version. This means that you don’t have to abandon your previous Office installation while getting used to the new one.

5: Support for online content

Office has long offered the ability to insert content such as pictures and video into documents. Although these capabilities still exist in Office 2013, Microsoft has added some new options. Office 2013 lets you insert online content such as online pictures and online video. Doing so gives you the ability to incorporate content from sources such as SkyDrive, Bing, and Facebook.

6: Templates

Templates are nothing new to Office. But I really like the way available templates are presented in Office 2013. As soon as you open a Microsoft Office application, you see a screen displaying a number of the available templates. It’s a small change, but I like that I don’t have to go hunting for a template if I want to use something other than the default.

7: Apps

One of the biggest new features of Office 2013 is the support for apps. Some apps are obviously more useful than others, but I do like the idea of being able to use apps within Office. Microsoft has created an app library for Office 2013. Some of the apps are free and others are paid. One of the apps I find myself using fairly often is a sticky note app for Word and Excel. It’s nice to be able to write reminders to myself without having to resort to using paper sticky notes.

8: Consistency

Microsoft has also reduced the learning curve for Office 2013 by maintaining a degree of consistency with Office 2010. Both versions make use of Ribbons at the top of the screen. Although Office 2013 contains a number of new features, Microsoft did a good job of maintaining the Ribbon layout that was used in the previous version of Office, at least in Word. The vast majority of the Ribbon icons are located in the same places in Office 2013 that they were in Office 2010. Sure, there are some new icons and there are a few things that have been moved around. But those who are experienced with Office 2010 should not have much trouble locating the most common options in Office 2013.

9: A streamlined Save As

When you click on Save As in Office 2010, you are presented with a dialog box that allows you to choose the folder in which you want to save your document and to specify a filename. In contrast, Office 2013 offers a much cleaner Save As screen, and there are shortcuts for saving documents in non-default locations (such as SkyDrive). The Save As screen even includes an Add A Place option, which is useful if you want to save documents to SharePoint.

10: Account connectivity

Finally, I like that Office 2013 can be connected to a Microsoft account. Doing so allows Office to take advantage of resources that are tied to that account. For example, if you have a photo associated with your profile, Office 2013 will use it. Whenever you comment on a document, your profile photo is added to the comment, making it perfectly clear who made the comment. More important, connecting Office to a Microsoft account makes it possible to seamlessly save documents to and open documents from SkyDrive.

11) Skype – The new Office comes with Skype, which gives 60 minutes of Skype world minutes every month. Integrate Skype contacts into Lync and call or instant message anyone on Skype.

12) Reading, markup – The Read Mode in Word provides a modern and easy-to-navigate reading experience that automatically adjusts for large and small screens. Zoom in and out of content, stream videos within documents, view revision marks and use touch to turn pages.

13) Digital note-taking – Digital note taking helps keep notes handy in the cloud and across multiple devices with OneNote. One can take notes with touch, pen or keyboard, or use them together and switch easily back and forth.

FEATURES OF WINDOW 9

1. Lower price

Microsoft needs a carrot to dangle in front of consumers and businesses to convince them to invest in Windows 9 machines. The firm might even have to go so far as to offer users the chance to upgrade to the next-iteration of Windows for free.Reducing the cost of upgrading will help people finally part with Windows XP – the aged operating system that entered end of life in April 2014.Microsoft’s updates have long been priced higher than Apple’s, and this is yet another factor deterring consumers from upgrading. Something similar to a limited-time, lower price deal for Windows 8 might work, but it’s possible that Windows 9 might even be available for free ala Mac OS X 10.9.

2. Better Battery Life

Intel’s 2013 Haswell chips provided a big jump in battery life, which can be seen in the latest crop of Ultrabooks. Windows machines have long been known to burn through battery power quicker than their Mac OS X counterparts.Ars Technica gave a detailed breakdown of how OS X Mavericks saves power. The system schedules tasks to run in clumps to maximise processor idle time and minimise power consumption. The latest version of Apple’s OS was so efficient, it even added an extra 60 minutes of battery life to older hardware which upgraded to this operating system. Microsoft needs to better implement power saving features into Windows 9 or risk being left further behind next-gen Mac products.

3. Desktop-Only Mode

The Metro UI has alienated many loyal Windows users and the firm is going to have to work hard to appease them. Windows 8.1 went some way towards making things better with the option to boot straight to desktop.But we want Windows 9 to take this a step further. We want the option to switch Metro off. So when you turn on desktop-only mode, this means images should open in Windows Gallery, not the Metro Preview app.

With Windows 9 for mobile devices, Microsoft is reportedly planning to ditch the desktop entirely, and rumours suggest that PCs running the OS may be sold with the Metro view disabled as a default.Desktop-only mode would let users work in peace and placate some of Microsoft’s critics, while allowing the company to keep experimenting with Metro for consumers.The Charms bar – another unpopular element of Windows 8’s redesign – is also rumoured to have been dropped, with the search, share, devices and settings options previously housed there moving to new title bars on modern Windows 9 apps.

4. Virtual desktops for improved productivity

OS X and Linux have had virtual desktops for years. They allow you to keep multiple sets of windows open on one computer, to mprove productivity when juggling multiple projects.Microsoft has announced that virtual desktops will indeed be part of Windows 9, allowing users to enjoy multiple desktop displays with individual settings, making it easier to seperate work and home activities on the same device.

5.Bring back the real Start button

It’s amazing how so many people can miss such a small feature. Microsoft gave into popular demand when it put a Start button in Windows 8.1, but this just brings you back to the Start screen.It was rumoured for some time the Start Button would return with Windows 8.1 Update 2, but sources claim it has been delayed until June 2015 when it is thought Windows 9 will also arrive.When it does finally see the light of day, the new-look Start Menu will reportedly include both the classic layout of previous iterations and a new Metro panel with live tiles for Windows Store apps. A mock-up of the menu was shown at April’s Build conference.

6. Over-the-air system recovery

Microsoft could also make it easier to restore Windows in the event of a malfunction. Mac devices can reinstall OS X by simply downloading files from the internet.A similar system would make it easier to recover Windows computers, as it is much simpler than digging through BIOS boot settings and trying to find your recovery USB.Keeping so many system-specific files would be difficult, but it’s possible. Microsoft could convince hardware manufacturers to contribute the necessary files so users could recover their systems over-the-air.

7. Better display scaling

Windows has not been able to cope with the high-resolution devices manufacturers have started pumping out. As screen resolutions climb north of 1920 x 1080, programs such as Adobe Premiere and Vegas Pro can be rendered unusable in some cases as icons can appear tiny and pixellated.Howtogeek put up a useful guide explaining how to change the compatibility settings for troublesome Windows apps in order to make the text readable again, but this shouldn’t even be necessary.Microsoft needs to add better support for Retina-quality displays to make sure the new version of its OS still looks good on devices like the Surface Pro 2.

8. Improved anti-virus

Windows is a primary target for viruses, if only by virtue of its dominant market share. Redmond’s OS attracts the lion’s share of malware, while OS X and Linux aren’t as vulnerable.Microsoft releases regular security patches and has built Microsoft Security Essentials into Windows 8 – but this has been critically panned. In Dennis pPublishing tests, it missed 39 per cent of malware thrown at it.We might see things improve with Windows 9 as Intel has rebranded the McAfee software suite and could provide comprehensive protection. But Microsoft has to up its game too.

9. Fix Windows Update

Updating Windows software has driven many people to the brink of insanity. If ignored for too long, Windows may reboot your PC at the worst moment possible and then you can be trapped in what seems like a never-ending cycle of updating and rebooting.Refreshing drivers is the same. PC users shouldn’t have to dig through a manufacturer’s website in 2014, looking for the latest version of a driver for their laptop’s graphics card.Windows 9 thankfully looks to be making moves to rectify these problems with Threshold, with single click updates rumoured to be introduced. The feature is a part of the Windows 9 Technical Preview, which makes it’s inclusion in the final operating system likely though not confirmed.This would finally make Windows updates more efficient and less annoying to apply, thus encouraging users to keep their operating system up to date.

10. Native DVD playback

One more feature we’d like to see in Windows is native DVD playback. Microsoft decided to remove this feature for Windows 8, to the annoyance of users. If you want your PC to play DVDs, you have to shell out $10 for a Windows Media Centre add-on.

What are the advantages of Windows over MS-DOS?

1.DOS uses CLI (command line interface), whereas Windows used GUI (graphical user interface)

2.DOS does not support networking, Windows does

3.DOS is a single user OS, Windows is Multiuser.

4.DOS is a single tasking OS, Windows is Multitasking.

5.Dos is a single threading OS, Windows is a Multithreading.

6.DOS supports 2 GB of maximum partition size, Windows supports 2 TB or more.

7.DOS uses FAT 16 file system, Windows uses FAT 32.

8.Server administration is not possible in DOS.

There are numerous advantages for windows users and programmers alike over the older DOS text based environment. They are

1. Standardised graphical user interface

2.Multitasking capability

3.OOP approach in programming

4.Memory control

5.Hardware Independence

6.Use of dynamic link libraries (DLL) .Biggest Different is Graphical user interface and Multimedia feature both are support by Window , not ms dos.

ADVANTAGE OF WINDOWS :

1.Microsoft has made several advancements and changes that have made it a much easier to use Operating System, and although arguably it may not be the easiest Operating System, it is still Easier thanLinux.
2.Because of the large amount of Microsoft Windows users, there is a much larger selection of available software programs, utilities, and games for Windows.
3.Microsoft Windows includes its own help section, has vast amount of available online documentation and help, as well as books on each of the versions of Windows.

DISADVANTAGE OF WINDOWS :

1.Microsoft Windows can run between $50.00 – $150.00 US dollars per each license copy.
2.Although Microsoft Windows has made great improvements in reliability over the last few versions of Windows, it still cannot match the reliability ofLinux.
3.Although Windows does have software programs, utilities, and games for free, the majority of the programs will cost anywhere between $20.00 – $200.00+ US dollars per copy.
4.Although Microsoft has made great improvements over the years with security on their Operating System,
their Operating System continues to be the most vulnerable to viruses and other attacks.

ADVANTAGE OF LINUX :

1.The majority of Linux variants are available for free or at a much lower price than Microsoft Windows.
2.Linux is and has always been a very secure Operating System. Although it still can be attacked when compared to Windows, it much more secure.
3. The majority of Linux variants and versions are notoriously reliable and can often run for months and years without needing to be rebooted.

DISADVANTAGE OF LINUX :

1.Although the majority Linux variants have improved dramatically in ease of use, Windows is still much easier to use for new computer users.
2.Linux has a large variety of available software programs, utilities, and games. However, Windows has a much larger selection of available software.
3.Linux companies and hardware manufacturers have made great advancements in hardware support for Linux and today Linux will support most hardware devices. However, many companies still do not offer drivers or support for their hardware in Linux.

What do hard drive-related words like SATA, IDE, and RAID.

HDD: Hard disk drive. A magnetic, mechanical device that’s been the primary internal storage device for more than a quarter century.

Flash RAM: Silicon chips that, unlike other types of RAM, can hold data without an electric current–a feature that makes them useful for storage. (RAM stands for Random Access Memory.)

SSD: Solid state drive. Flash memory packaged in an HDD-like form factor, to be used in place of a hard drive. SSDs are generally faster than HDDs, use less power, and are less likely to be damaged by a fall or shock. They also cost much more per gigabyte.

Partition: A section of a hard drive (or SSD) that appears to the operating system as a separate, independent drive. People use multiple partitions to run more than one operating system, or to separate programs from data. Most major-name Windows PCs come with a special recovery partition containing the files needed to restore Windows.

SATA: Serial Advanced Technology Attachment. The current standard technology for connecting a hard drive or SSD to the rest of the computer.

IDE: Integrated Drive Electronics. The older standard that SATA replaced.

RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disks. Two or more drives working together to enhance performance or redundancy. For instance, in a RAID 0, two drives work as one larger and faster drive–faster because twice as many drive heads are reading data simultaneously. In a RAID 2, two drives contain the exact same files, so that if one dies the other continues to work. Other configurations allow both speed and redundancy.

Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It is quite similar to EEPROM.Flash memory is used in USB Drives, SSD Drives, computer RAM, hybrid drives (small SSD + Hard Drive), graphics cards, and memory cards.

Here are a few examples of flash memory:

Your computer’s BIOS chip
CompactFlash (most often found in digital cameras)
SmartMedia (most often found in digital cameras)
Memory Stick (most often found in digital cameras)
PCMCIA Type I and Type II memory cards (used as solid-state disks in laptops)
Memory cards for video game consoles

Flash memory is a type of EEPROM chip, which stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It has a grid of columns and rows with a cell that has two transistors at each intersection .

Computer Abbreviations:-

AGP	Accelerated Graphic Port.
ALE	Address Latch Enable.
ALU	Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
AMD	Advanced micro device.
AMI	American Mega trend Incorporative.
APM	Advanced Power Management.
ARP	Address resolution Protocol.
ASR	Automatic System Recovery.
AT	Advanced Technology.
ATA	Advanced Technology Attachment.
ATX	Advanced Technology Extended.
BCD	Binary Coded Decimal.
BDC	Backup Domain Controller.
BIOS	Basic Input Output System.
BNC	British Novel Connector.
BPS	Bits Per Second.
CAD	Computer Added Design.
CAM	Computer Aided Manufacturer.
CBCP	Protocol Callback Control.
CCP	Compression Control Protocol.
CD – ROM	Compact Disk Read Only Memory.
CDFS	Compact Disk File System.
CGA	Color Graphic Adapter.
CGI	Common Gateway Interface.
CHAP	Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol.
CISC	Complex Instruction Set Computer.
CMOS	Complimentary Metal Oxide Semi Conductor.
CPU	Central Processing Unit.
CRT	Cathode Ray Tube.
DBMS	Database Management System.
DCOM	Distributed Component Object Model.
DDE	Dynamic Data Exchange.
DDR RAM	Double Date Rate Random Access Memory.
DHCP	Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
DIMM	Dual Inline Memory Module.
DIPP	Dual Inline Pin Package.
DLL	Dynamic Link Library
DMA	Direct Memory Access.
DNS	Domain Name System.
DOS	Disk Operating System.
DPI	Dots Per Inch.
DSDM	DDE Share Database Manager.
DSL	Digital Subscribe Line.
DSR	Data Set Ready Signal.
DTE	Data Terminal Equipment.
DVD	Digital Versatile Disk.
ECP	Enhanced Capabilities Port.
EDO	Extended Data Out.
EEPROM	Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
EGA	Enhanced Graphic Adapter.
EIDE	Enhanced Integrated Device Electronics.
EISA	Extended Industrial Standard Architecture.
EMS	Expanded Memory System.
EP	Electro Photo Graphic.
EPP	Enhanced Parallel Port.
EPROM	Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
FAT	File Allocation Table.
FCPGA	Flip Chip Pin Grid Array,
FDD	Floppy Disk Drive
FDDI	Fiber Distribution Data Interface.
FIFO	First in / First Out.
FPU	Floating Point Unit.
FQDN	Fully Qualified Domain Name.
FSB	Front System Bus.
FTP	File transfer Protocol.
GPL	General Public License.
GUI	Graphical User Interface.
HCL	Hardware Compatibility List.
HDD	Hard Disk Drive.
HP	Hewlett Packard.
HPFS	High Power File System.
HTML	Hyper text Markup Language.
ICMP	Internet Control Message Protocol.
IDE	Integrated Device Electronics.
IEEE	Institute of Electrical and Electronics Test Engineering.
IETF	Internet Engineering Task Force.
IGMP	Internet Group Management Protocol.
IIS	Internet Information Server
IP	Internet Protocol.
IPCP	Internet Protocol Control Protocol.
IPX	Internet Packet Exchange.
IrDA	Infrared Data Association.
IRQ	Interrupt Request.
ISA	Industrial Standard Architecture.
ISDN	Integrated System Digital Network.
ISO	International Standards Organization.
ISP	Internet Service Provider.
KBPS	Kilo Byte Per Second.
LAN	Local Area Network.
LBA	Logical Block Addressing.
LCD	Liquid Crystal Display.
LED	Light – Emitting Diode.
LPD	Line Printer Daemon.
LPT	Line Printer Terminal.
MAC	Media Access Control.
MAN	Metropolitan Area Network.
MBPS	Mega Byte Per Second.
MBR	Master Boot Record.
MCA	Micro Channel Architecture.
MCSD	Microsoft Certified Solution Developer.
MIDI	Musical Instrument Digital Interface.
MMX	Multimedia Extended.
MPU	Microprocessor Unit.
MSD	Micro soft Diagnostic.
NDIS	Network Driver Interface Specification.
NDP	Numeric Data Processor.
Net BEUI	Network BIOS Extended Under Interface.
NFS	Novell File System.
NIC	Network Interface Card.
NT	Network Terminal.
NTFS	New Technology File System.
OCR	Optical Character Recognition.
OEM	Original Equipment Manufacturer.
OMR	Optical Mark Reader.
OSI	Open System Interconnection.
PAP	Password Authentication Protocol.
PC	Personal Computer.
PCB	Printed Circuit Board.
PCI	Peripheral component Interconnect.
PCMCIA	Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDC	Primary Domain Controller.
PGA	Pin Grid Array.
PIO	Program Input Output.
PNP	Plug and Play.
POSIX	Portable Operating System Interface for Unix.
POST	Power On Self Test.
PPGA	Plastic Pin Grid Array.
PPI	Programmable Peripheral Interface.
PPP	Point – to – Point Protocol.
PPTP	Point – to – Point Tunneling Protocol.
PROM	Programmable Read Only Memory.
PSTN	Public Switched Telephone Network.
PSW	Processor Status Word.
RAID	Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks.
RAM	Random Access Memory
RAS	Remote Access Service.
RD RAM	Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
RDBMS	Relation Database Management System.
RIP	Routing Information Protocol.
RISC	Reduced Instruction Set Computing.
RJ	Registered Jack.
ROM	Read Only Memory.
RPM	Revolution Per Minute.
RTC	Real Time Clock.
SAP	Service Advertising Protocol.
SCSI	Small Computer System Interface.
SD RAM	Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.
SIMM	Single Inline Memory Module.
SIPP	Single Inline Pin Package.
SLIP	Serial Line Internet Protocol.
SMPS	Switch Mode Power Supply.
SMS	System Management Server.
SMTP	Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
SNA	System Network Architecture.
SNMP	Simple Network Management Protocol.
SPX	Sequence Packet Exchange.
SQL	Structured Query Language.
STP	Shielded Twisted Pair.
SVGA	Super Video Graphic Adapter
TCP	Transmission Control Protocol.
TSR	Terminate Stay Resident.
TWAIN	Technology Without An Interesting Name.
UAM	User Authentication Module.
UART	Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter.
UDP	User Datagram Protocol.
UNC	Universal Naming Convention.
UPS	Uninterruptible Power Supply.
USB	Universal Serial Bus
UTP	Unshielded Twisted Pair.
XML	Extended Markup Language.
VDD	Virtual Device Drivers.
ZIF	Zero Insertion Force.
VESA	Video Electronics Standard Association.
VGA	Video Graphic Adapter.
VLB	VESA Local Bus.
VPN	Virtual Private Network.
WAN	Wide Area Network.
WAP	Wireless Application Protocol.

Boards/System Boards A motherboard is a multi-layered printed circuit board. Copper circuit paths called traces that resemble a complicated roadmap carry signals and voltages across the motherboard. Layered fabrication techniques are used so that some layers of a board can carry data for the BIOS, processor and memory buses while other layers carry voltage and ground returns without the paths short-circuiting at intersections. The insulated layers are manufactured into one complete, complex sandwich; chips and sockets are soldered onto this motherboard. For example the Intel Pentium 4 motherboard has got 3 PCI slot, 1 AGP slot and 1 CNR slot, Memory slots and other components . Types of Motherboards There are two major types of motherboards; integrated and nonintegrated. Nonintegrated Motherboards Nonintegrated motherboards have each major assembly installed in the computer as expansion cards. The major assemblies we’re talking about here are items like the video circuitry, disk controllers, and accessories. Nonintegrated boards can be easily identified because each expansion slot is usually occupied by one of the components we just mentioned.Integrated Motherboards Integrated motherboards are called that because most of the component that would otherwise be installed as expansion cards is integrated into the motherboard circuitry. Integrated system boards were designed for their simplicity. Of course, there’s a drawback to this simplicity. When one component breaks, you can’t just replace the component that broken; the whole motherboard must be replaced. Although they are cheaper to produce, they are more expensive to repair Motherboard Components We have known the basic types of motherboards and their form factors, we take a look at the components found on the motherboard and their locations relative to each other.

Expansion slots
Memory slots
Processor slots or sockets
Power connectors
On-board disk drive connectors
Keyboard connector
Peripheral port connectors
BIOS chip
CMOS battery
Jumpers and DIP switches

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.

• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.

Input-Devices:

Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Joystick, Web Cam, Optical Mark Reader, Optical Character Reader, Optical Bar code Reader, Touch Pen, Graphic digitizer, light pen, Touch pad\screen.

Output-Devices:
Monitor, Printer, Plotter, Speaker

Both:

CD, Pen-drive, MODEM, hard drive, tape drive, disk drive

FUNCTIONAL UNITS

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation.

They are

1) arithmetic logical unit

2) control unit.

3) central processing unit.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various operations using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Logical Unit

Logical Unit : After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Uses of Computer:-

Education : Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to make sense. College students spend an average of 5-6 hours a week on the internet.

Health and Medicine : Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information can now be digitized. Software is now able to computer the risk of a disease. Mental health researchers are using computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of psychotherapy. A patient paralyzed by a stroke has received an implant that allows communication between his brain and a computer; as a result, he can move a cursor across a screen by brainpower and convey simple messages.

Science: Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a “collaboratory”, an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over the world can work easily together even at a distance. An example is space physics where space physicists are allowed to band together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from instruments on four parts of the world.

Business: Business clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness. Some areas of business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better educated and more knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer technology.

Government:

Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control and law enforcement activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting, Education, Aviation and many others.

Defence:

There are many uses computers in Defence such as:

1) Controlling UAV or unmanned air-crafts an example is Predator. If you have cable I would recommend watching the shows “Future Weapons” and “Modern Marvels”. The show future weapon gives an entire hour to the predator.

2) They are also used on Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that uses GPS and Computers to help the missile get to the target.

3) Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the incoming target to destroy them.

4) Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational Awareness) and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.

5) Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting equipments to and around the battlefield.

6) Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.

7) Computers help design and test new systems.

Sports:

In today’s technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every activity.

Safety

Computers have aided in the design of safety equipment in sports such as football helmets to shoes to mouth guards

What are characteristic of a computer?

Basic characteristics about computer are:

1. Speed: – As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.

2. Accuracy: – The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7

3. Diligence: – A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.

4. Versatility: – It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

5. Power of Remembering: – Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.

6. No IQ: – Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling: – It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

8. Storage: – The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers

Chipsets The chipset on the motherboard is the most important part of the board itself as it defines almost everything about the system. The chipset controls the system and its capabilities. It is the hub of all data transfer. It is a series of chips on the motherboard, easily identified as the largest chips on the board with the exception of the CPU. Chip sets are integrated, meaning they are soldered onto the board and are not upgradable without buying a whole new motherboard. Here is a small list of some of the items that chipsets dictate:

Memory controller
Real-time clock
Keyboard and mouse controller
Secondary cache controller
DMA controller
PCI Bridge
EIDE controller

MotherBoard Ports and Connectors

Download-description of pin and ports of computer

Processor

Microsoft Word Shortcut Keys

Shortcut	Description
Ctrl + A	Select all (including text, graphics).
Ctrl + B	Bold
Ctrl + I	Italic
Ctrl + U	Underline
Ctrl + C	Copy
Ctrl + V	Paste
Ctrl + X	Cut
Ctrl + F	Find
Ctrl + Z	Undo
Ctrl + Y	Redo
Ctrl + P	Open the print dialog.
Ctrl + K	Insert link.
Ctrl + L	Left align.
Ctrl + E	Center align.
Ctrl + R	Right align.
Ctrl + M	Indent.
Ctrl + (left arrow)	Moves one word to the left.
Ctrl + (right arrow)	Moves one word to the right.
Ctrl + (up arrow)	Moves cursor to the beginning of the paragraph.
Ctrl + (down arrow)	Moves cursor to the end of the paragraph.
Ctrl + Shift + F	Change font.
Ctrl + Shift + *	View/hide non-printing characters.
Ctrl + Del	Deletes word to the right of cursor.
Ctrl + Backspace	Deletes word to the left of cursor.
Ctrl + End	Moves cursor to the end of document.
Ctrl + Home	Moves cursor to the beginning of document.
Ctrl + Spacebar	Reset highlighted text to the default font.
Ctrl + 1	Single-space.
Ctrl + 2	Double-space.
Ctrl + 5	1.5-line.
Ctrl + Alt + 1	Format text: heading 1.
Ctrl + Alt + 2	Format text: heading 2.
Ctrl + Alt + 3	Format text: heading 3.
F1	Help.
F4	Repeat the last action
F5	Go to .
F7	Spelling and grammar.
F12	Save as.
F8 then (left arrow)	Increase selection to the left by one character
F8 then (right arrow)	Increase selection to the right by one character
Ctrl + F1	Task Pane.
Ctrl + F2	Print preview.
Alt + Ctrl + F2	New document.
Shift + F3	Cycle between capitalized formats
Ctrl + Insert	Copy.
Shift + Insert	Paste.
Shift + End	Select from current position to the end of the line.
Shift + Home	Select from current position to the beginning of the line.
Ctrl + Shift + (left arrow)	Select from current position to the beginning of the word.
Ctrl + Shift + (right arrow)	Select from current position to the end of the word.
Ctrl + Shift + (up arrow)	Select from current position to the beginning of the document.
Ctrl + Shift + (down arrow)	Select from current position to the end of the document.
Ctrl + Shift + Page Up	Select from current position to the beginning of the window.
Ctrl + Shift + Page Down	Select from current position to the end of the window.
Shift + Page Up	One screen page up.
Shift + Page Down	One screen page down.
Shift + F7	Thesaurus check selected text.
Shift + F12	Save.
Ctrl + Shift + F12	Print.
Alt + Shift + D	Insert the current date.
Alt + Shift + T	Insert the current time.

Microsoft Excel Shortcut Keys

Mouse Shortcut

Shortcut	Description
Double-click (on a cell)	Edit the cell contents.
Double-click (on a row/column divider)	Adjust height/width to auto-fit
High-light headers of multiple rows/columns then Double-click on a row/column divider	Adjust height/width to auto-fit of all high-lighted rows/columns
Triple-click	Select the entire contents in the cell
Click on row/column divider then drag	Adjust height/width of the row/colunn
High-light headers of multiple rows/columns then Click on row/column divider then drag	Adjust height/width of the rows/colunns
Ctrl + Mouse wheel	Zooms in and out of document.
Hold Shift + Click the cells	Select multiple cells

Keyboard shortcuts

Shortcut	Description
F2	Edit the selected cell.
F5	Goto a specific cell. For example, C6.
F7	Spell check selected text and/or document.
F11	Create chart.
Ctrl + A	Select all.
Ctrl + B	Bold
Ctrl + C	Copy
Ctrl + F	Find (same as Shift + F5).
Ctrl + G	Go To.
Ctrl + H	Replace.
Ctrl + I	Italic.
Ctrl + K	Insert link.
Ctrl + N	New Workbook.
Ctrl + O	Open Workbook.
Ctrl + P	Print dialog.
Ctrl + S	Save
Ctrl + U	Underline
Ctrl + V	Paste
Ctrl + Z	Undo
Ctrl + Y	Redo
Ctrl + X	Cut
Ctrl + 5	Strikethrough text.
Ctrl + F3	Define Name.
Ctrl + F4	Exit Excel.
Ctrl + F6	Switch between open workbooks.
Ctrl + F9	Minimize current window.
Ctrl + F10	Maximize current window.
Shift + F1	Activate Help on Item.
Shift + F2	Insert Comments
Shift + F3	Insert Function.
Ctrl + Shift + ;	Enter the current time.
Ctrl + ;	Enter the current date.
Ctrl + Page down	Move to next worksheet.
Ctrl + Page up	Move to previous worksheet.
Ctrl + Shift + #	Number Format: Date
Ctrl + Shift + @	Number Format: Time.
Ctrl + Shift + !	Number Format: Commas.
Ctrl + Shift + $	Number Format: Currency
Ctrl + Shift + %	Number Format: Percentage
Ctrl + Shift + ^	Number Format: Scientific.
Ctrl + Space	Select entire column.
Shift + Space	Select entire row.
Ctrl + (Arrow key)	Move to next section.

Windows Shortcut Keys

Shortcut Keys	Description
WINDOWS-KEY	Bring up the Windows Start menu.
WINDOWS-KEY + F1	Bring up the Windows Help.
WINDOWS-KEY + e	Open Microsoft Explorer.
WINDOWS-KEY + f	Windows Search.
WINDOWS-KEY + Ctrl + f	Search for computers
WINDOWS-KEY + d	Minimizes all and bring up desktop, or restore all
WINDOWS-KEY + l	Lock the computer (Windows XP & newer).
WINDOWS-KEY + m	Minimizes all windows.
WINDOWS-KEY + Shift + M	Restore all. Opposite with WINDOWS-KEY + M and WINDOWS-KEY + D.
WINDOWS-KEY + r	Open the run window.
WINDOWS-KEY + u	Utility Manager.
WINDOWS-KEY + Tab	Cycle through the programs on task bar.
WINDOWS-KEY + Pause/Break	Open the System Properties window.

Microsoft Internet Explorer Shortcut Keys

Mouse shortcuts

Shortcut	Description
Double-click (On a word)	Select the word.
Triple-click	Select entire line.
Wheel click	Activate the Smooth scrolling
Hold Ctrl + Scroll Wheel forward	Increase font size
Hold Ctrl + Scroll Wheel backward	Decrease font size
Click one point then hold Shift & click another	Create a selection from the two points

Keyboard shortcuts

Shortcut	Description
F1
F3	Toggle on/off search panel.
F4	Pull down address bar.
F5	Refresh current page.
F6	Move focus to address bar.
F11	Toggle on/off full-screen mode
Alt + (Left Arrow)	Go back on history. Same pas Backspace
Alt + (Right Arrow)	Go forward on history.
Ctrl + A	Select All.
Ctrl + B
Ctrl + C	Copy Selected.
Ctrl + E	Search panel.
Ctrl + F	Find (on page).
Ctrl + H	Toggle History panel.
Ctrl + I	Toggle Favorites panel.
Ctrl + L	Open File. Same as Ctrl + O
Ctrl + N	Open New browser window.
Ctrl + P	Print current page / frame.
Ctrl + R	Refresh. Same as F5
Esc	Stop (while page is loading).
Ctrl + Enter	Auto complete a url address. For example, type thecomputricks in the address bar and press CTRL + ENTER to get http://www.thecomputricks.com.
Ctrl + D	Add the current page to favorite.

Computer memory

In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called “virtual memory“. An archaic synonym for memory is store.

The term “memory”, meaning primary memory is often associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuitsconsisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as primary memory but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are two main types of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memoryare flash memory (sometimes used as secondary, sometimes primary computer memory) and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM memory (used for firmware such as boot programs). Examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM, DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory (typically static RAM, SRAM, which is fast but energy-consuming and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than DRAM).

Volatile memory

Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either Static RAM (see SRAM) or dynamic RAM (see DRAM). SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy to interface to but uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated to interface to and control and needs regular refresh cycles to prevent its contents being lost. However, DRAM uses only one transistor and a capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and, with more bits on a memory chip, be much cheaper per bit. SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM dominates, but is used for their cache memories. SRAM is commonplace in small embedded systems, which might only need tens of kilobytes or less. Forthcoming volatile memory technologies that hope to replace or compete with SRAM and DRAM include Z-RAM, TTRAM, A-RAM and ETA RAM.

Non-volatile memory

Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM),flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such aspaper tape and punched cards. Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies include FeRAM, CBRAM, PRAM, SONOS, RRAM, Racetrack memory, NRAM and Millipede.

MEMORY

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called cell. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one.For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types:

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory, which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

ADVANTAGE

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

DISADVANTAGE:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited capacity and data gets lost when power is switched off.It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instructions required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristic of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories.

It is known as main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently.CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory and then CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories.

It is known as backup memory.

It is non-volatile memory.

Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

It is used for storage of the data in the computer.

Computer may run without secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

RAM (random-access memory):-

This is the same as main memory. When used by itself, the termRAM refers to read and write memory; that is, you can both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. This is in contrast to ROM, which permits you only to read data. Most RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data was in RAM is lost.

ROM (read-only memory): –

Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds instructions for starting up the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written to.

PROM (programmable read-only memory): –

A PROM is a memory chip on which you can store aprogram. But once the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.

EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory):-

An EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.

EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory):-

An EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

Booting: When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting.

There are two Types of Booting

1) Warm Booting: when the System Starts from the Starting or from initial State Means when we Starts our System this is called as warm Booting. In the Warm Booting the System will be Started from its beginning State means first of all, the user will press the Power Button , then this will read all the instructions from the ROM and the Operating System will b Automatically gets loaded into the System.WARM BOOT (a.k.a. WARM START)- Restarting the computer WITHOUT turning the power off.

Shutdown option in the START menu of windows 9x/2K/XP has a “Restart” option: this is a “warm boot”.

3] Hot Booting : Restarting computer by pressing combination of CTR+ALT+Del. Keys

BIOS

BIOS software is stored on a non-volatile ROM chip on the motherboard. It is specifically designed to work with each particular model of computer, interfacing with various devices that make up the complementary chipset of the system. In modern computer systems, theBIOS chip’s contents can be rewritten without removing it from the motherboard, allowing BIOS software to be upgraded in place.(F2,DELETE AND F10)

A BIOS has a user interface (UI), typically a menu system accessed by pressing a certain key on the keyboard when the PC starts. In the BIOS UI, a user can:

configure hardware
set the system clock
enable or disable system components
select which devices are eligible to be a potential boot device
set various password prompts, such as a password for securing access to the BIOS user interface functions itself and preventing malicious users from booting the system from unauthorized peripheral devices.

FAT ANFD NTFS

A file system (or filesystem) is a means to organize data expected to be retained after a program terminates by providing procedures to store, retrieve and update data as well as manage the available space on the device(s) which contain it. A file system organizes data in an efficient manner and is tuned to the specific characteristics of the device. A tight coupling usually exists between the operating system and the file system. Some file systems provide mechanisms to control access to the data and metadata. Ensuring reliability is a major responsibility of a file system. Some file systems allow multiple programs to update the same file at nearly the same time.

File systems are used on data storage devices, such as hard disk drives, floppy disks, optical discs, or flash memory storage devices, to maintain the physical locations of the computer files. They may provide access to data on a file server by acting as clients for anetwork protocol (e.g. NFS, SMB, or 9P clients), or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual data (e.g.procfs). This is distinguished from a directory service and registry.

Comparing NTFS and FAT file systems

A file system is the underlying structure a computer uses to organize data on a hard disk. If you are installing a new hard disk, you need to partition and format it using a file system before you can begin storing data or programs. In Windows, the three file system options you have to choose from are NTFS, FAT32, and the older and rarely-used FAT (also known as FAT16).

NTFS

NTFS is the preferred file system for this version of Windows. It has many benefits over the earlier FAT32 file system, including:

The capability to recover from some disk-related errors automatically, which FAT32 cannot.
Improved support for larger hard disks.
Better security because you can use permissions and encryption to restrict access to specific files to approved users.

FAT32

FAT32, and the lesser-used FAT, were used in earlier versionsof Windowsoperatingsystems,including Windows 95, Windows 98,andWindows Millennium Edition. FAT32 does not have the security that NTFS provides, so if you have a FAT32 partition or volume on your computer, any user who has access to your computer can read any file on it. FAT32 also has size limitations. You cannot create a FAT32 partition greater than 32GB in this version of Windows, and you cannot store a file larger than 4GB on a FAT32 partition.The main reason to use FAT32 is because you have a computer that will sometimes run Windows 95, Windows 98, or Windows Millennium Edition and at other times run this version of Windows, known as a multiboot configuration. If that is the case, you will need to install the earlier operating system on a FAT32 or FAT partition and ensure that it is a primary partition (one that can host an operating system). Any additional partitions you will need to access when using these earlier versions of Windows must also be formatted with FAT32. These earlier versions of Windows can access NTFS partitions or volumes over a network, but not on your computer

Some Random Facts

Fat 16 was developed in 1981 for dos
Fat 16 was designed to handle floppies
Fat 32 is an extension of Fat 16
Fat 32 introduced in service pack 2 of Windows 95
Operating systems may recognise Fat16, but not Fat 32 (Win NT)
You can go from FAT to NTFS but not the other way around
FAT = File Allocation Table
NTFS = New Technology File System

OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

There are many kinds of drives but when someone talks about a drive they usually mean a hard disk drive. Most computers these days also come with a CD-ROM drive (that can be a player only or a player/recorder) or a DVD -ROM drive (again, either just a player or both a player and recorder).. .All the above disks are nonvolatile storage. In other words whatever you store on the disk remains there, even after you shut off the PC.

CD-ROM

CD-ROM (an abbreviation of “Compact Disc read-only memory”) is a Compact Disc that contains data accessible by a computer. While the Compact Disc format was originally designed for music storage and playback, the format was later adapted to hold any form of binary data. CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including games and multimedia applications, though any data can be stored (up to the capacity limit of a disc). Some CDs hold both computer data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD player, whilst data (such as software or digital video) is only usable on a computer (such as PC CD-ROMs). A CD has a single spiral track of data, circling from the inside of the disc to the outside. A CD can store the data ranging from 650 to 700 MB. Discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic, with a thin layer of aluminium to make a reflective surface. The most common size of CD-ROM disc is 120 mm in diameter, though the smaller Mini CD standard with an 80 mm diameter,Data is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations (“pits”, with the gaps between them referred to as “lands”). A laser is shone onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands. Because the depth of the pits is approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the wavelength of the laser light used to read the disc, the reflected beam’s phase is shifted in relation to the incoming beam, causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam’s intensity. This pattern of changing intensity of the reflected beam is converted into binary data.

DVD

Digital Versatile Disk have same size as a CD but stores seven times CD capacity on a single side. DVDs can also be double-sided or dual layer. Today most DVDs are used to display full-length commercial motion pictures, plus additional material such as outtakes, director’s notes, movie trailers, etc.

DVD, introduced in 1996, was originally known as Digital Video Disc but soon became known as Digital Versatile Disc. It is the next generation of optical disc storage technology, which shares the same overall dimensions of a CD, but have significantly higher capacities – holding from 4 to 28 times as much data. Single sided DVDs can store 4.7GB for single layer and 8.5GB for dual-layer disks. Double-sided DVDs can store 9.4GB for single layer and 17GB for dual-layer disks.

COMPARISON IN CD AND DVD

CD	DVD
Stands for compact disc	Stands for digital versatile disc
120mm diameter, 1.2mm thick, with a 15mm hole in the center, discs with pits and lands stamped in a polycarbonate base	Physical size is same as that of CD
CD’s are recorded in only one layer and one side	DVDs can have two layers of recording on a size and be double-sided as well
One side is always available for the label	If the disc is single-sided, a label can be placed on top; if it’s double-sided, only a small ring near the center provides room for labeling.
780 nm red laser (wave length)	650 nm red laser
Track pitch (difference between two tracks) is 1.6 mm	Track pitch 0.74mm , hence more tracks are accommodated than CD
One 1.2 m polycarbonate layer	May have one 1.2 m or two 0.6 m polycarbonate layers
Size of pits and lands are larger than that of DVD (0.8 mm)	Size of pits and lands are smaller (0.4 mm)
Memory 650 MB /700MB	Memory 4.7 GB, 8.5 GB, 9.4 GB and 17 GB for single side single layer, single side dual layer, double side single layer and double side double layer respectively
Stores video in VCD or SVCD format	Mpeg-2 or DVD format encoding of video, One 4.7 GB disc may contain 133 minutes of MPEG-2 coded video
Can be read by both CDor DVD drive	Can only be read by DVD drive

PROTOCOL

What is a Protocol?

A standard set of regulations and requirements that allow two electronic items to connect to and exchange information with one another. Protocols regulate data transmission among devices as well as within a network of linked devices through both error control and specifying which data compression method to use. In particular, protocols decide: the method of error checking, how to compact data (if required), how the transmitting device signals that it has concluded sending data, and how the receiving device signals that it has completed receiving data.

Among the most common Internet protocols are FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).

What is a Protocol?

A uniform set of rules that enable two devices to connect and transmit data to one another. Protocols determine how data are transmitted between computing devices and over networks. They define issues such as error control and data compression methods. The protocol determines the following: type of error checking to be used, data compression method (if any), how the sending device will indicate that it has finished a message and how the receiving device will indicate that it has received the message. Internet protocols include TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).

Basic requirements of protocols

Messages are sent and received on communicating systems to establish communications. Protocols should therefore specify rules governing the transmission. In general, much of the following should be addressed:[12]

Data formats for data exchange. Digital message bitstrings are exchanged. The bitstrings are divided in fields and each field carries information relevant to the protocol. Conceptually the bitstring is divided into two parts called the header area and the data area. The actual message is stored in the data area, so the header area contains the fields with more relevance to the protocol. Bitstrings longer than the maximum transmission unit (MTU) are divided in pieces of appropriate size.[13]
Address formats for data exchange. Addresses are used to identify both the sender and the intended receiver(s). The addresses are stored in the header area of the bitstrings, allowing the receivers to determine whether the bitstrings are intended for themselves and should be processed or should be ignored. A connection between a sender and a receiver can be identified using an address pair (sender address, receiver address). Usually some address values have special meanings. An all-1s address could be taken to mean an addressing of all stations on the network, so sending to this address would result in a broadcast on the local network. The rules describing the meanings of the address value are collectively called an addressing scheme.[14]
Address mapping. Sometimes protocols need to map addresses of one scheme on addresses of another scheme. For instance to translate a logical IP address specified by the application to an Ethernet hardware address. This is referred to as address mapping.[15]
Routing. When systems are not directly connected, intermediary systems along the route to the intended receiver(s) need to forward messages on behalf of the sender. On the Internet, the networks are connected using routers. This way of connecting networks is called internetworking.
Detection of transmission errors is necessary on networks which cannot guarantee error-free operation. In a common approach, CRCs of the data area are added to the end of packets, making it possible for the receiver to detect differences caused by errors. The receiver rejects the packets on CRC differences and arranges somehow for retransmission.[16]
Acknowledgements of correct reception of packets is required for connection oriented communication. Acknowledgements are sent from receivers back to their respective senders.[17]
Loss of information – timeouts and retries. Packets may be lost on the network or suffer from long delays. To cope with this, under some protocols, a sender may expect an acknowledgement of correct reception from the receiver within a certain amount of time. On timeouts, the sender must assume the packet was not received and retransmit it. In case of a permanently broken link, the retransmission has no effect so the number of retransmissions is limited. Exceeding the retry limit is considered an error.[18]
Direction of information flow needs to be addressed if transmissions can only occur in one direction at a time as on half-duplex links. This is known as Media Access Control. Arrangements have to be made to accommodate the case when two parties want to gain control at the same time.[19]
Sequence control. We have seen that long bitstrings are divided in pieces, and then sent on the network individually. The pieces may get lost or delayed or take different routes to their destination on some types of networks. As a result pieces may arrive out of sequence. Retransmissions can result duplicate pieces. By marking the pieces with sequence information at the sender, the receiver can determine what was lost or duplicated, ask for necessary retransmissions and reassemble the original message.[20]
Flow control is needed when the sender transmits faster than the receiver or intermediate network equipment can process the transmissions. Flow control can be implemented by messaging from receiver to sender.[21]

Getting the data across a network is only part of the problem for a protocol. The data received has to be evaluated in the context of the progress of the conversation, so a protocol has to specify rules describing the context. These kind of rules are said to express the syntax of the communications. Other rules determine whether the data is meaningful for the context in which the exchange takes place. These kind of rules are said to express the semantics of the communications. Both intuitive descriptions as well as more formal specifications in the form of finite state machine models are used to describe the expected interactions of the protocol.[22] Formal ways for describing the syntax of the communications are Abstract Syntax Notation One (a ISO standard) or Augmented Backus-Naur form (a IETF standard).

deliver data across a computer network connection in individually delivered small pieces.

ARP – Address Resolution Protocol

ARP converts an IP address to its corresponding physical network address. ARP is a low-level protocol usually implemented in the device drivers of network operating systems. ARP is most commonly utilized on Ethernet networks.

HTTP – HyperText Transfer Protocol

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP – provides a standard for Web browsers and servers to communicate. HTTP is an application layer network protocol built on top of TCP.

PPPoE

PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) is a network protocol sometimes used by broadband modems for connecting to DSL Internet service.

Spanning Tree Protocol

The Spanning Tree Protocol implements a standard algorithm to prevent redundant transmission of data along intermediate hops between a source and destination host.

NTP – Network Time Protocol

Network Time Protocol is a server based system to synchronize time of day clocks computer across the Internet.

SOCKS

SOCKS is an Internet protocol designed to allow clients to communicate with proxy servers (or VPN servers) through network firewalls.

UWB

Ultra-wideband – UWB – is a communication method used in wireless networking to achieve high bandwidth connections with low power utilization. Originally designed for use in commercial radar systems, UWB technology is gradually being adopted in consumer electronics and wireless personal area networks (PANs).

Network Protocols

Network protocols like HTTP, TCP/IP, and SMTP provide a foundation that much of the Internet is built on.

protocol

In information technology, a protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols specify interactions between the communicating entities.

Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard.

The TCP/IP Internet protocols, a common example, consist of:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to exchange messages with other Internet points at the information packet level
Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at the Internet address level
Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) andFile Transfer Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with corresponding programs elsewhere on the Internet

There are many other Internet protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

The word protocol comes from the Greek protocollon, meaning a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume that describes the contents.

CLOUD COMPUTING

Cloud Computing provides us a means by which we can access the applications as utilities, over the internet. It allows us to create, configure, and customize the business applications online. i.e., WAN, LAN orVPN. Applications such as e-mail, web conferencing, customer relationship management (CRM),all run in cloud. The term Cloud refers to a Network or Internet. In other words, we can say that Cloud is something, which is present at remote location. Cloud can provide services over network, i.e., on public networks or on private networks,

Basic Concepts

There are certain services and models working behind the scene making the cloud computing feasible and accessible to end users. Following are the working models for cloud computing:

Deployment Model and Service Model

Deployment Model

PUBLIC CLOUD

The Public Cloud allows systems and services to be easily accessible to the general public. Public cloud may be less secure because of its openness, e.g., e-mail.

PRIVATE CLOUD

The Private Cloud allows systems and services to be accessible within an organization. It offers increased security because of its private nature.

COMMUNITY CLOUD

The Community Cloud allows systems and services to be accessible by group of organizations.

HYBRID CLOUD

The Hybrid Cloud is mixture of public and private cloud. However, the critical activities are performed using private cloud while the non-critical activities are performed using public cloud.

SERVICE MODELS

Service Models are the reference models on which the Cloud Computing is based. These can be categorized into three basic service models as listed below:

1.Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

2.Platform as a Service (PaaS)

3.Software as a Service (SaaS)

BENEFITS

Cloud Computing has numerous advantages. Some of them are listed below:

One can access applications as utilities, over the Internet.

Manipulate and configure the application online at any time.

It does not require to install a specific piece of software to access or manipulate cloud application.

Cloud Computing offers online development and deployment tools, programming runtime environment through Platform as a Service model.

Cloud resources are available over the network in a manner that provides platform independent access to any type of clients.

Cloud Computing offers on-demand self-service. The resources can be used without interaction with cloud service provider.

Cloud Computing is highly cost effective because it operates at higher efficiencies with greater utilization. It just requires an Internet connection.

Cloud Computing offers load balancing that makes it more reliable.

Download (PPTX, 927KB)

HOW TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE OF YOUR COMPUTER

MANAGE STARTUP PROGRAMS

Some programs start themselves automatically when you start Windows. Too many of these programs opening at the same time can slow down your computer.

To disable these programs from startup and improve performance, use Windows Defender. For more information, see Stop a program from running automatically when Windows starts.

ADJUST VISUAL EFFECTS

You can optimize performance by changing how menus and windows appear.

ADJUST INDEXING OPTIONS

Indexing options can help you find what you’re looking for quickly and easily on your computer.

You can search more efficiently by narrowing your search to focus on those files and folders that you commonly use. For more information, see Improve Windows searches using the index: frequently asked questions.

ADJUST POWER SETTINGS

Change power-related settings so that your computer resumes from power-saving settings more efficiently, and adjust battery usage for portable computers.

OPEN DISK CLEANUP

This tool deletes unnecessary or temporary files on your hard disk so you can increase the amount of storage space you have. For more information, see Delete files using Disk Cleanup.

ADVANCED TOOLS

Access advanced system tools, such as Event Viewer, Disk Defragmenter, and System Information, that system administrators and IT professionals often use to solve problems. You can also view notifications about performance-related issues and what to do about them. For example, if Windows detects that a driver is reducing performance, click the notification to learn which driver is causing the problem and view help on how to update the driver. Issues listed at the beginning of the list are impacting the system more than issues listed later in the list.

Computer Abbreviations

AGP	Accelerated Graphic Port.
ALE	Address Latch Enable.
ALU	Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
AMD	Advanced micro device.
AMI	American Mega trend Incorporative.
APM	Advanced Power Management.
ARP	Address resolution Protocol.
ASR	Automatic System Recovery.
AT	Advanced Technology.
ATA	Advanced Technology Attachment.
ATX	Advanced Technology Extended.
BCD	Binary Coded Decimal.
BDC	Backup Domain Controller.
BIOS	Basic Input Output System.
BNC	British Novel Connector.
BPS	Bits Per Second.
CAD	Computer Added Design.
CAM	Computer Aided Manufacturer.
CBCP	Protocol Callback Control.
CCP	Compression Control Protocol.
CD – ROM	Compact Disk Read Only Memory.
CDFS	Compact Disk File System.
CGA	Color Graphic Adapter.
CGI	Common Gateway Interface.
CHAP	Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol.
CISC	Complex Instruction Set Computer.
CMOS	Complimentary Metal Oxide Semi Conductor.
CPU	Central Processing Unit.
CRT	Cathode Ray Tube.
DBMS	Database Management System.
DCOM	Distributed Component Object Model.
DDE	Dynamic Data Exchange.
DDR RAM	Double Date Rate Random Access Memory.
DHCP	Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
DIMM	Dual Inline Memory Module.
DIPP	Dual Inline Pin Package.
DLL	Dynamic Link Library
DMA	Direct Memory Access.
DNS	Domain Name System.
DOS	Disk Operating System.
DPI	Dots Per Inch.
DSDM	DDE Share Database Manager.
DSL	Digital Subscribe Line.
DSR	Data Set Ready Signal.
DTE	Data Terminal Equipment.
DVD	Digital Versatile Disk.
ECP	Enhanced Capabilities Port.
EDO	Extended Data Out.
EEPROM	Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
EGA	Enhanced Graphic Adapter.
EIDE	Enhanced Integrated Device Electronics.
EISA	Extended Industrial Standard Architecture.
EMS	Expanded Memory System.
EP	Electro Photo Graphic.
EPP	Enhanced Parallel Port.
EPROM	Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
FAT	File Allocation Table.
FCPGA	Flip Chip Pin Grid Array,
FDD	Floppy Disk Drive
FDDI	Fiber Distribution Data Interface.
FIFO	First in / First Out.
FPU	Floating Point Unit.
FQDN	Fully Qualified Domain Name.
FSB	Front System Bus.
FTP	File transfer Protocol.
GPL	General Public License.
GUI	Graphical User Interface.
HCL	Hardware Compatibility List.
HDD	Hard Disk Drive.
HP	Hewlett Packard.
HPFS	High Power File System.
HTML	Hyper text Markup Language.
ICMP	Internet Control Message Protocol.
IDE	Integrated Device Electronics.
IEEE	Institute of Electrical and Electronics Test Engineering.
IETF	Internet Engineering Task Force.
IGMP	Internet Group Management Protocol.
IIS	Internet Information Server
IP	Internet Protocol.
IPCP	Internet Protocol Control Protocol.
IPX	Internet Packet Exchange.
IrDA	Infrared Data Association.
IRQ	Interrupt Request.
ISA	Industrial Standard Architecture.
ISDN	Integrated System Digital Network.
ISO	International Standards Organization.
ISP	Internet Service Provider.
KBPS	Kilo Byte Per Second.
LAN	Local Area Network.
LBA	Logical Block Addressing.
LCD	Liquid Crystal Display.
LED	Light – Emitting Diode.
LPD	Line Printer Daemon.
LPT	Line Printer Terminal.
MAC	Media Access Control.
MAN	Metropolitan Area Network.
MBPS	Mega Byte Per Second.
MBR	Master Boot Record.
MCA	Micro Channel Architecture.
MCSD	Microsoft Certified Solution Developer.
MIDI	Musical Instrument Digital Interface.
MMX	Multimedia Extended.
MPU	Microprocessor Unit.
MSD	Micro soft Diagnostic.
NDIS	Network Driver Interface Specification.
NDP	Numeric Data Processor.
Net BEUI	Network BIOS Extended Under Interface.
NFS	Novell File System.
NIC	Network Interface Card.
NT	Network Terminal.
NTFS	New Technology File System.
OCR	Optical Character Recognition.
OEM	Original Equipment Manufacturer.
OMR	Optical Mark Reader.
OSI	Open System Interconnection.
PAP	Password Authentication Protocol.
PC	Personal Computer.
PCB	Printed Circuit Board.
PCI	Peripheral component Interconnect.
PCMCIA	Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDC	Primary Domain Controller.
PGA	Pin Grid Array.
PIO	Program Input Output.
PNP	Plug and Play.
POSIX	Portable Operating System Interface for Unix.
POST	Power On Self Test.
PPGA	Plastic Pin Grid Array.
PPI	Programmable Peripheral Interface.
PPP	Point – to – Point Protocol.
PPTP	Point – to – Point Tunneling Protocol.
PROM	Programmable Read Only Memory.
PSTN	Public Switched Telephone Network.
PSW	Processor Status Word.
RAID	Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks.
RAM	Random Access Memory
RAS	Remote Access Service.
RD RAM	Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
RDBMS	Relation Database Management System.
RIP	Routing Information Protocol.
RISC	Reduced Instruction Set Computing.
RJ	Registered Jack.
ROM	Read Only Memory.
RPM	Revolution Per Minute.
RTC	Real Time Clock.
SAP	Service Advertising Protocol.
SCSI	Small Computer System Interface.
SD RAM	Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.
SIMM	Single Inline Memory Module.
SIPP	Single Inline Pin Package.
SLIP	Serial Line Internet Protocol.
SMPS	Switch Mode Power Supply.
SMS	System Management Server.
SMTP	Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
SNA	System Network Architecture.
SNMP	Simple Network Management Protocol.
SPX	Sequence Packet Exchange.
SQL	Structured Query Language.
STP	Shielded Twisted Pair.
SVGA	Super Video Graphic Adapter
TCP	Transmission Control Protocol.
TSR	Terminate Stay Resident.
TWAIN	Technology Without An Interesting Name.
UAM	User Authentication Module.
UART	Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter.
UDP	User Datagram Protocol.
UNC	Universal Naming Convention.
UPS	Uninterruptible Power Supply.
USB	Universal Serial Bus
UTP	Unshielded Twisted Pair.
XML	Extended Markup Language.
VDD	Virtual Device Drivers.
ZIF	Zero Insertion Force.
VESA	Video Electronics Standard Association.
VGA	Video Graphic Adapter.
VLB	VESA Local Bus.
VPN	Virtual Private Network.
WAN	Wide Area Network.
WAP	Wireless Application Protocol.
WINS	Windows Internet Name Service.

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